Army Alpha Testing :: essays research papers

The first mental tests designed to be employ for mass, radical testing were developed by psychologists for the U.S. Army in 1917-1918. The group tests were modeled after intelligence tests designed for individual use in one-on-one assessment. In developing the mental tests, the psychologists subscribed to the position that one could be quite intelligent, but il literate person or not proficient in the position row. Based on this reasoning, two major tests were developed, the Army Alpha for literate groups, and the Army Beta for illiterates, low literates or non-English speaking (Yerkes, 1921). Both tests were based on the theoretical position that intelligence was an inherited trait, and the assumption was made that inseparable intelligence was being assessed. Each test was made- up of a number of subtests (Figure 4), the content of which differed depending on whether the test was for literates or illiterates, low literates or non- English speakers. trial 1 Following Oral Dire ctions, involves auding and comprehending simple or complex oral language directions and looking at and marking in the appropriate places on the serve up sheet.Test 2 Arithmetical Problems, requires both the ability to read and comprehend the utter problem and the cognition of arithmetic to perform the computations called for.Test3 Practical Judgment, clearly requires interpreting and comprehending language. Additionally, however, it requires noesis of heathenly, normative expectations to make the correct choice.Test 4 Synonyms-Antonyms, requires specific dictionary knowledge, in addition to the knowledge of same and opposite.Test 5 move Sentences, requires semantic knowledge about flies as well as grammatical knowledge to rearrange the sentences, and nurture has to be held in working retrospect while rearranging the sentences.Test 6 Number Series Completion, emphasizes reasoning with number knowledge in working memory.Test 7 Analogies, clearly emphasizes culturally determ ined, semantic knowledge retrieval from the long term memory knowledge base, and also information processing in working memory to detect similarities among the different knowledge domains addressed by the analogies.Test 8 Information is heavily loaded with cultural knowledge requirements.Based on a persons total Alpha bump off he was assigned a letter grade of A (superior intelligence), B. C+, C (average intelligence), C-, D, or D- (inferior intelligence). The letter grade became the persons mental category, and was taken as a general indicator of the persons native intelligence. This position was held even though there was a clear relationship of Alpha scores to years of schooling, in which often of the special knowledge, vocabulary and cultural knowledge would have been developed.Army Alpha Testing essays research papers The first mental tests designed to be used for mass, group testing were developed by psychologists for the U.S. Army in 1917-1918. The group tests were model ed after intelligence tests designed for individual use in one-on-one assessment. In developing the mental tests, the psychologists subscribed to the position that one could be quite intelligent, but illiterate or not proficient in the English language. Based on this reasoning, two major tests were developed, the Army Alpha for literate groups, and the Army Beta for illiterates, low literates or non-English speaking (Yerkes, 1921). Both tests were based on the theoretical position that intelligence was an inherited trait, and the assumption was made that native intelligence was being assessed. Each test was made- up of a number of subtests (Figure 4), the contents of which differed depending on whether the test was for literates or illiterates, low literates or non- English speakers.Test 1 Following Oral Directions, involves auding and comprehending simple or complex oral language directions and looking at and marking in the appropriate places on the answer sheet.Test 2 Arithmetical Problems, requires both the ability to read and comprehend the stated problem and the knowledge of arithmetic to perform the computations called for.Test3 Practical Judgment, clearly requires reading and comprehending language. Additionally, however, it requires knowledge of culturally, normative expectations to make the correct choice.Test 4 Synonyms-Antonyms, requires specific vocabulary knowledge, in addition to the knowledge of same and opposite.Test 5 Disarranged Sentences, requires semantic knowledge about flies as well as grammatical knowledge to rearrange the sentences, and information has to be held in working memory while rearranging the sentences.Test 6 Number Series Completion, emphasizes reasoning with number knowledge in working memory.Test 7 Analogies, clearly emphasizes culturally determined, semantic knowledge retrieval from the long term memory knowledge base, and also information processing in working memory to detect similarities among the different knowledge do mains addressed by the analogies.Test 8 Information is heavily loaded with cultural knowledge requirements.Based on a persons total Alpha score he was assigned a letter grade of A (superior intelligence), B. C+, C (average intelligence), C-, D, or D- (inferior intelligence). The letter grade became the persons mental category, and was taken as a general indicator of the persons native intelligence. This position was held even though there was a clear relationship of Alpha scores to years of schooling, in which much of the special knowledge, vocabulary and cultural knowledge would have been developed.

The Euro and the European Union :: Politics Economics

The Euro and the europiuman Union Many people would agree that Europe is a continent in which regions identify with each other even if they ar not part of the same country. For that reason, as well as others, in 1957 the Treaty of Rome declared a common European market as a European objective with the aim of increasing economic prosperity and contributing to an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe (www.euro.ecb.int). Later, in 1986 and then in 1992, the exclusive European Act and the Treaty of European Union tried to build on the previous treaty to create a system in Europe in which one currency could eventually be used all over the land under the heading of the Economic and Monetary Union. (www.euro.ecb.int) However, the question remains, wherefore would the leaders of various European nations want to create one currency when the rights of national sovereignty have always been an issue for countries all over the world. Why, in 1998 did they create the European Central B ank, and why in The third stage of EMU... on 1 January 1999, when the exchange rates of the participating currencies were irrevocably set (www.euro.ecb.int) did eleven, and after twelve, countries link themselves economically in a way that has never been done before? The answer lies in history. The need to link separate distinct political communities in order to achieve common objectives is an ancient one (Woodard). One such example is the Greek indep leftoverent city states that were linked by a league that dealt with economic issues. The same type of league linking towns in Italy can be found in medieval times. (Woodard) Later, The United States made the key breakthrough. The states primitively formed a loose relationship with weak central government (the Confederation). They replaced this system with a new constitution in 1789 creating the modern United States and delimit federalism in its current sense (Woodard). In doing so, it began a global discussion of the use of federal ism to hold regions, and in particular colonies, together. In September of 1946, Winston Churchill made a speech at Zurich University in which he called for a United States of Europe (www.euro.ecb.int) clearly, this was not a new idea. Churchill thought that by uniting Europe, they would be able to put an end to Europes decline economically in markets that the United States was quickly taking over.

Smoking Risks Essay -- essays research papers

One of the approximately popular habits in todays society is smoking. Yet each year, cigarette smoking kills more(prenominal) Americans than AIDS, alcohol, car accidents, homicides, suicides, illegal drugs and fires combined. Smoking is an extremely bad pastime, practiced for centuries, for an individuals health and those surrounding him/her. People start for many different reasons and energize addicted to the nicotine in cigarettes. Smoking cause many fatal diseases, but help is available to those who seek it. Cigarette smoking is a disgusting and sunburned habit.History of SmokingSmoking is defined as the action of inhaling tobacco from a pipe, cigar or cigarette. It has been practiced for 100s of years, including by early North-American natives. Europeans had introduced it into the nonagenarian World by the early 16th century (Petrakis). It was continually practiced since then throughout the world, with tobacco companies arising and packaged cigarettes soon available. dirty dogrs would praise it for medicinal reasons and standardisedwise claimed smoking to be pleasurable.Smokers had no knowledge of cigarette smokes harm to their health until 1964, when the surgeon general of the U.S Public Health Service cogitate that smoking was hazardous to an individuals health, and soon after it was discovered that second-hand smoke was also hazardous to the health of surrounding non-smokers inhaling it.Reasons Why People SmokeThere are many reasons why people begin smoking. One of which is insecurity. In an uncertain situation in which a person is not well-provided with their individuality and not confident with themselves, if there are smokers around then that person may be tempted to take up smoking. It might be because they would like to fit in with an unknown group of people, or someone may take it up based on a new friends or girl/boyfriends influences.Another reason why people take up smoking is because of peer pressure haveing to a quick physical addi ction. One ingredient in cigarettes is nicotine, and it is extremely addictive. And yet nicotine is not the only physical reason people smoke, they are also rifle hooked on the taste, smell and the feel of cigarettes.Health Risks of SmokingAccording to the American Heart Association there are an est... ... would distract someone from smoking.The regime also encourages people to quit smoking. Cigarette smokers are warned each time they smoke a cigarette of the deadly diseases that could effect their health. By law a warning label must appear on each pack and carton of cigarettes warning buyers of the hazards. There is also a ban on tv set and radio ads for cigarettes in the United States, and in Canada there is a ban on all advertisements for tobacco companies. It is also illegal to smoke in most public places now, including some restaurants, elevators, the workplace, schools, airlines, public transportation machines and most stores. Also, the Canadian and American governments pr ohibit the selling of cigarettes to anyone younger than 19 years of age.Although there are inactive many individuals who smoke worldwide, one can hope that sometime in the future there will only be non-smokers. Smoking only proves to lead to an early grave for smokers and non-smokers alike. With medicines, support groups and will power, the world could easily become a cleaner, non-smoking place, because a smokers death is an unneeded death.

Stem Cell Research Essay -- Argumentative Science Scientific Essays

Stem Cell ResearchImagine a world where both day scientists create human beings, cultivate them for a week, and then disgrace them. This scenario sounds vaguely familiar to the creation of Frankenstein in Mary Shelleys book Frankenstein. The variance between the creation of Frankenstein and the creation of human beings is that the latter has already become true as scientist be creating and destroying embryos. Scientist today even in the United States are creating human embryos and then destroying them when performing foot cell look, but the government does not fund these scientists. Now think of a loved one hurt from Alzheimers disease or paralysis. Would you deny them a life without suffering if the cure for the disease could be obtained by performing look into on an aborted foetus already destined for destruction? It is my belief that scientists should be able to do stem cell research within carefully defined moral parameters because this research is so promising to cur e so many diseases and teach us so much about how our bodies work. However, embryos destined for destruction should be used for stem cell research rather than created embryos because there are several thousands of embryos that lead be destroyed so it is not necessary to create more embryos and destroy them.Stem cell research remains highly promising in that Animal research suggests stem cells may some day provide a way to repair or replace diseased tissues and organs and it holds immense possibilities for cures of diseases such as Alzheimers, paralysis, Parkinsons disease, and diabetes (The Lancet par. 1). These are diseases for which scientists have been searching for cures unsuccessfully for several decades. Adults who were pa... ...ve that the government should fund tightly regulated stem cell research. It is completely unnecessary for scientists to create embryos to merely destroy however, I fail to consume the problem in using embryos destine for destruction for a great er good. These embryos have already be robbed of their life, so by being used for research they provide others with the blessing of a wonderful and healthy life. By federally funding research done on embryos, the society will not be continuing in the way of the complete degradation of society. The American people will benefit through the improvement of their health and the vast knowledge that they will acquire about their bodies and the way they work. Works Cited 1.Miller, John J. Hard Cell The Push To Experiment On Human Embryos. The National Review. April 5, 1999. 5. Online. Infotrac Expanded Academic.

Essay --

Interest Groups Interest groups organization of people sharing common objectives who energetically attempt to influence government policymakers finished direct and indirect methods. J. M. Molins and A. Casademunt, argueure Groups and the Articulation of Interests, in West European Politics, No. 4, 1998 This structure is designed so that interest groups would be a twirl of public influence on politics to generate changes, but would not intimidate the government much. Whether this is still the case or not is a authoritative question that we should find out. Interest groups play numerous different roles in the American political system, such as depiction, participation, education, and program monitoring. Representation is the purpose that we overtake most frequently and the function we routinely think of when we think of interest groups. Involvement is another role that interest groups play in our government, which is while they aid and support the contribution of their memb ers in the political process. Interest groups also educate, by trying to enlighten both public officials and the public at large concerning matters of meaning to them. Interest groups also keep way of how programs are functioning in the field and endeavor to influence government to take action when troubles become distinct when they monitor programs. The conventional interest groups have been organized around several form of economic origin, be it corporate interests, associates, or unions. The number of business-oriented lobbies has developed since the mid-sixties and continues to grow. Public-interest groups have as well grown extremely since the 1960s. Liberal groups started the trend, but traditional groups are now just as common, though some groups... ...e character of Local Government and Citizens in the Democratic Process, National Civic Review, vol. 85, no. 3, Fall 1996. March, J.G. & J.P. Olsen (1998) The Institutional Dynamics of world-wide Political Orders, 524 In ternational Organization 943, Exploration and Contestation in the Study of World Politics, Cambridge, Mass The MIT Press, pp. 303-329) March, J.G. & J.P. Olsen (2000) Democracy and Schooling, in L.M. McDonnell, P.M. Timpane & R. Benjamin (eds), Rediscovering the Democratic process of Education, Lawrence University of Kansas Press, pp. 148-173 Olsen, J.P. (1997) Institutional Design in Democratic Contexts, 53 The Journal Of Political Philosophy 203 Rokkan, S. (1999) (edited by P. Flora, with S. Kuhnle & D. Urwin) State Formation, Nation-Building and Mass Politics in Europe The Theory of Stein Rokkan, Oxford Oxford University Press

The Continuing Importance of Affirmative Action Essay -- Argumentative

The Continuing Importance of Affirmative Action Affirmative challenge is about to take sort of a beating. Prominent Republicans from Phil Gramm to Pete Wilson to Bob Dole all plan on making the attack on positive action a central plump down of their campaign rhetoric. The Clinton administration, perhaps trying to stem the attack before it begins, recently announced that it would reevaluate the merit of all affirmative action programs. And many of those to the left-hand(a) of Clinton oppose affirmative action--albeit probably for different reasons than those to his right. Considering the overwhelming opposition to affirmative action, it seems improbable that affirmative action would have much to recommend it. Yet this line deserves examination. There are a large number of factors contributing to a given policys favorability it seems unlikely that all aspects of affirmative action, from morality to reality to the gray in between, count as strikes against it. Concerns over fairn ess to white males seem to be at the root of most opposition to affirmative action. This argument is difficult to antipathetic it seems clear that affirmative action does amount, strictly speaking, to reverse discrimination. For some, this fact alone is enough reason to ring the policy death knell. Yet this conclusion seems to me hasty. If affirmative action hurts white males only a little, yet helps minorities and women significantly, then we might well decide to keep affirmative action around, despite its unfairness. Private universities commonly employ policies of preference which are sometimes euphemistically termed development policies. Development means that there is a concerted effort on the part of admissions officers to drive students who come fro... ...(If you are unconvinced of this point, do a bit more(prenominal) reading and thinking.) More than lowering the hiring and admissions standard by which minorities and women are measured, affirmative action works to hamp er pervasive racism. If an employer harbors racist, heterocentrist, or sexist views, then being forced to take a second look at minorities and women may counteract that prejudice. Affirmative action, then, may have less to do with lowering the standard by which minorities and women are measured, and more to do with equalizing opportunities given. That sounds to me like sound policy nonetheless Newt would find difficult to oppose--policies designed to ensure equality of opportunity. For as long as it has been policy, affirmative action has been implemented with an eye towards equalizing opportunity. A more admirable, mainstream ideal is difficult for me to envision.

The Continuing Importance of Affirmative Action Essay -- Argumentative

The Continuing Importance of Affirmative Action Affirmative activity is or so to take quite a beating. Prominent Republicans from Phil Gramm to Pete Wilson to Bob Dole all plan on making the attack on affirmative action a central plank of their campaign rhetoric. The Clinton administration, perhaps trying to stem the attack before it begins, recently announced that it would reevaluate the merit of all affirmative action programs. And many of those to the left of Clinton oppose affirmative action--albeit probably for different reasons than those to his right. Considering the overwhelming opposition to affirmative action, it seems improbable that affirmative action would have much to commend it. thus far this contention deserves examination. There are a large number of factors contributing to a given policys favorability it seems unlikely that all aspects of affirmative action, from morality to earth to the gray in between, count as strikes against it. Concerns over fairness to white males seem to be at the root of most opposition to affirmative action. This disputation is difficult to counter it seems clear that affirmative action does amount, strictly speaking, to reverse discrimination. For some, this fact alone is enough reason to ring the policy death knell. Yet this conclusion seems to me hasty. If affirmative action hurts white males only a little, yet helps minorities and women significantly, then we might well decide to keep affirmative action around, disdain its unfairness. Private universities commonly employ policies of preference which are sometimes euphemistically termed development policies. Development means that there is a concerted effort on the part of admissions officers to admit students who come fro... ...(If you are unconvinced of this point, do a bit more reading and thinking.) More than lowering the hiring and admissions standard by which minorities and women are measured, affirmative action works to counteract pervasive racism . If an employer harbors racist, heterocentrist, or sexist views, then being forced to take a second look at minorities and women may counteract that prejudice. Affirmative action, then, may have less to do with lowering the standard by which minorities and women are measured, and more to do with equalizing opportunities given. That travels to me like sound policy even Newt would find difficult to oppose--policies designed to ensure equality of opportunity. For as long as it has been policy, affirmative action has been implemented with an nitty-gritty towards equalizing opportunity. A more admirable, mainstream ideal is difficult for me to envision.

Impact of Edsa Revolution

EDSA Revolution I In the year 1986, the Philippines was given the worlds limelight because of the nonviolent revolution to overthrow the despotism of Former professorship Ferdinand Marcos. Many countries were astounded by our pastorals move and it draw much more attention because nobody died. With 2 meg participants involved in the protest, the military was given a choice whether or not firing back to the protesters who ar free of firearms and be only holding rosaries. And because of this the Philippine citizens were successful in overthrowing the dictatorships administration and the departure of the Marcos Family.The Filipino Citizens were able to taste democracy again because of the leadership of Former President Corazon Aquino after the Marcos Family left. (Santiago, 2009). As Santiago stated in her website, she detailed all the events on EDSA revolution I per day and explained it thoroughly. Reading materials like this or anything link the EDSA revolution makes a Filipin os heart feel proud approximately what the world saw. I was not yet born during the EDSA revolution provided the rest of my siblings and parents were there and experienced all the happenings.I was able to get my yields side of the story on what happened during the EDSA Revolution. I started to ask where she was during the EDSA Revolution (Febrauary 22-25) and state that she was at her office together with my siblings (The office where my mother is working is also our house). They were listening to updates of the events like the protests, and chaos through TV and radio. My mother was working at a printing office and she said that their clients increased because the clients were giving job orders on flyers about overthrowing Marcos administration.And my mother stated that the flyers they printed were distributed to heap who are passing by. My mother also stated that their sales increased during that time because the job orders they received kept on coming and coming. She said that Cardinal Sin encouraged citizenry to join the protest on Epifanio De los Santos Avenue (EDSA) and said that when there are a lot of people, the military will have a choice whether or not to fire their bullets or let the protesters be. Even though my mother was not able to go to the protest in EDSA, she said they gave food to the people who are keeping an eye out on the rallies.My mother couldnt join the rally because she was taking care of my siblings. But she was updated with the latest news about the progression of the rallies. After overthrowing Marcos, people rejoiced and went straight to Malcanang. Some people actually tore the pictures of the Marcos, they saw the machines used by Former President Ferdinand Marcos for his illness and it substantiate that he was really suffering from an illness. A few days after the success of overthrowing Marcos, The Marcos Family went Hawaii.Then, Former President Corazon Aquino proceeded to being the first female president of our country a nd she gained fame because of being the first female democratic president to be elected in Asia and she was able to bring back the democracy of our country. The revolution gave new insights to the Filipino citizens, my mother said that they able to know the power of people who come together and fight for what they think is wrong to the mass. And how their power as citizens value because they are also the ones in charge of choosing who will sit as president so, they should be careful of their decision.And the Martial Law disciplined the Filipinos. Even though a lot of people are not in favor of it. It actually promoted discipline and order. My mother said that there were not a lot of changes get out for the term of the president. The president had only 1 term which lasts for six years. And the dictatorship days were gone. But with regards to our countrys economic status and lifestyle, it got worst. From my mothers story and from what I have read, I learned that Filipinos are people who like joining rallies involving overthrowing administrations that does not satisfy them. And they stick to what the believe in. owadays, rallying likewise does not do benefit protesters. I wonder why people were able to achieve what they are fighting for in rallies during that time. And I learned that a lot of people were really aware of all the updates about the EDSA Revolution. Social awareness was evident during that time. I discovered that when you become a voter, your responsibility if rather heavy. One vote can make or break a outlook and if a voter us not satisfied they have the freedom to say that the administration is not working well since we are in a democratic country. And also the Filipino citizens.So, before voting, think about what this candidate can do to our country or community no matter how small his place is. What matters is what the voters think and what the candidate will do satisfy his followers. And my mama said that Marcos had great plans for the cou ntry and I wish that there would be a president who would be able to give the country efficient projects that are feasible, so that, it can help the Filipino people rise. Reference Santiago, Angela. (2009). EDSA Introduction Retrieved on January 29, 2011 from http//www. stuartxchange. org/EdsaIntro. html By Ana Rosales

Fate vs. Free Will: Oedipus Rex Essay

Oedipus ignorance, disrespect, and unending appear for the truth ultimately contribute to his uninvolved willing destruction of life and the completion of prophecy. Fate is the theory that our lives are predetermined for us, and the concept that states that hu adult males have the filling to choose what decisions they make in life is know as drop by the wayside will. Society tends to generally feel that free will is the presiding element in their lives.It is important to distinguish reality from falsehood ideas like the belief that your life is controlled by fate we live in a world where fantasies do not exist and truth surrounds us everyday. Ignoring this makes you innate to the truth blind to reality and open to fanciful theories-fate-that close your existence to the real world. Free will is definitely the controlling factor in baring the truth about Oedipus prophecy. He governs all the choices and many obstacles he undergoes alone, includingOedipus fleeing from Corinth, the riddle being solved, the refusal to quit the search for truth and the supposed fated events, like the devastation of his father, the married couple to his mother, and the encounter with the drunken man.After Tiresias, a man who foreshadows the future, informs Oedipus what lies ahead he flees from Corinth. When I heard this, and in the days that followed I would measure from the stars the whereabouts of Corinth-yes, I fled to somewhere where I should not see fulfilled the infamies t elderly in that dreadful oracle (Sophocles 792-793). If we as humans were told a fate that would ruin our lives, we would all free willingly try to hide from it. It was not fate that led him to flee from Corinth but the human instinct to hide from the truth.Another major event atomic number 82 to the fulfillment of the prophecy is when Oedipus solves the riddle in Thebes. The Sphinx asks Oedipus, What walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three legs in the evening? He solves the rid dle answering, That man crawls on all fours in infancy, walks upright on two legs in adulthood, and uses a cane as a third leg in old age. Technically Oedipus does not have to solve the riddle he can turn most and travel elsewhere, but he willingly solves it. Oedipus refuses to stop sounding for the truth that Jocasta and Lauiswere Oedipus parents when Jocasta, his wife, told him to. Stop in the name of god, if you love your own life, call off this search My suffering is enough. Listen to me (Sophocles, Line1603-1605). Oedipus replied, Listen to you? No more. I mustiness know it all, I must see the truth at last (Sophocles, Line 1169-1170). It was Oedipus freewill to continue the search of truth, despite the upcoming damage that is to come. Oedipus and those around him consider fate the source of Oedipus problems. A supposed fated event that occurred is when Oedipus states, The driver, the old man himself, tried to push me off the road.In anger I struck the driver as he tried to crowd me off. When the old man saw me coming past the wheels he aimed at my head with a two-pronged goad, and hit me. I paid him back in full, with interest in no time at all he was hit by the beget I held in my hand and rolled backwards from the center of the wagon. I killed the lot of them (Sophocles, Lines 810-820) In the prophecy he was fated to kill his father, but all the way it is Oedipus decision to defend himself against the man who attacked him its either life or death and death is not an option for him.The next is the marriage to his mother marriage is the reward for solving the Sphinxs riddle. Again, Oedipus could have rejected this prize from the town of Thebes but he voluntarily accepts to marry Jocasta. In the story Oedipus comes across a drunken man who accuses him of not having real parents Oedipus chooses to listen to this man, which supposedly is fate. A drunken man does not always have the credibility of reality so Oedipus did not have to listen to him, but h e freely chose to take note of the things he said to him.In the end it was Oedipus ignorance, disrespect, and unending search for the truth that ultimately contributes to his free willing destruction and fulfillment of prophecy. He has plenty of opportunities to make better choices but he is blind to those opportunities because of his flaws and stubbornness. Fate separates us from reality and blinds us from the truth. The truth can be a positive aspect in our lives we learn from mistakes and it is what fuels our growth. We must all learn that we have the choice to control our own being and the decisions in themhumankind must open their eyes and take control.

Fddi and Cddi

C H A P T E R 8 Chapter Goals Provide background information s dizzyly FDDI technology. Explain how FDDI works. Describe the differences between FDDI and Copper Distrisolelyed information interface (CDDI). Describe how CDDI works. Fiber Distributed information Interface Introduction The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-passing, dual- crowd LAN victimization theatrical enjoyment-optic cable. FDDI is frequently utilize as high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper.It should be noted that relatively new-fashionedly, a related copper specification, called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI), has emerged to bid 100-Mbps service over copper. CDDI is the implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire. This chapter focuses mainly on FDDI specifications and operations, but it to a fault declare oneselfs a high-level overview of CDDI. FDDI uses dual- camp archit ecture with traffic on each ring flowing in opposite directions (called counter-rotating). The dual rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring.During normal operation, the primary ring is used for entropy transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. As forget be discussed in detail later in this chapter, the primary purpose of the dual rings is to provide superior reliability and robustness. symbol 8-1 shows the counter-rotating primary and secondary FDDI rings. Internetworking Technologies vade mecum 1-58705-001-3 8-1 Chapter 8 FDDI Transmission Media Fiber Distributed Data Interface Figure 8-1 FDDI Uses Counter-Rotating Primary and Secondary peal Primary Secondary FDDI Concentrator WAN StandardsFDDI was developed by the American subject Standards Institute (ANSI) X3T9. 5 standards committee in the mid-1980s. At the time, high-speed engineering workstations were beginning to tax the bandwidth of existing local-area networks (LANs) based on Ethernet and Token rebou nd. A innovative LAN media was needed that could easily support these workstations and their new distributed applications. At the same time, network reliability had become an increasingly important issue as body managers migrated mission-critical applications from large computers to networks.FDDI was developed to fill these needs. After completing the FDDI specification, ANSI submitted FDDI to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which created an international version of FDDI that is completely compatible with the ANSI standard version. FDDI Transmission Media FDDI uses optic fiber as the primary transmission medium, but it also can run over copper cabling. As mentioned earlier, FDDI over copper is referred to as Copper-Distributed Data Interface (CDDI). Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media.In contingent, security, reliability, and performance all are enhanced with opthalmic fiber media because fiber does not emit electrical signals. A per sonal medium that does emit electrical signals (copper) can be tapped and therefore would permit unauthorized access to the data that is transiting the medium. In addition, fiber is immune to electrical interference from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Fiber historically has supported much higher bandwidth (throughput potential) than copper, although recent technological advances have made copper capable of transmitting at 100 Mbps.Finally, FDDI allows 2 km between stations using multimode fiber, and even lasting distances using a sensation mode. FDDI defines two types of optical fiber single-mode and multimode. A mode is a ray of light that enters the fiber at a particular angle. Multimode fiber uses LED as the light-generating thingmajig, while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-2 ct840801 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Specifications Multimode fiber allows mu ltiple modes of light to hand out through the fiber.Because these modes of light enter the fiber at different angles, they will arrive at the end of the fiber at different times. This characteristic is cognize as modal dispersion. Modal dispersion limits the bandwidth and distances that can be accomplished using multimode fibers. For this reason, multimode fiber is generally used for connectivity within a building or a relatively geographically contained environment. Single-mode fiber allows only one mode of light to propagate through the fiber. Because only a single mode of light is used, modal dispersion is not present with single-mode fiber.Therefore, single-mode fiber is capable of delivering considerably higher performance connectivity over much larger distances, which is why it generally is used for connectivity between buildings and within environments that are more than geographically dispersed. Figure 8-2 depicts single-mode fiber using a laser light source and multimode fiber using a light emitting diode (LED) light source. Figure 8-2 Light Sources Differ for Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers Laser light source Single mode Multimode LED light source ct840802 FDDI SpecificationsFDDI specifies the physical and media-access portions of the OSI reference model. FDDI is not actually a single specification, but it is a collection of four separate specifications, each with a specific function. Combined, these specifications have the cleverness to provide high-speed connectivity between upper-layer protocols such as TCP/IP and IPX, and media such as fiber-optic cabling. FDDIs four specifications are the Media Access subordination (MAC), Physical Layer Protocol (PHY), Physical-Medium Dependent (PMD), and billet Management (SMT) specifications.The MAC specification defines how the medium is accessed, including frame format, token handling, calling, algorithms for calculating cyclic redundancy retain (CRC) value, and error-recovery mechanisms. The PHY sp ecification defines data encoding/decoding procedures, clocking requirements, and framing, among other functions. The PMD specification defines the characteristics of the transmission medium, including fiber-optic nexuss, power levels, bit-error rates, optical components, and connectors.The SMT specification defines FDDI station grade, ring configuration, and ring chasteness features, including station insertion and removal, initialization, fault isolation and recovery, scheduling, and statistics collection. FDDI is similar to IEEE 802. 3 Ethernet and IEEE 802. 5 Token Ring in its relationship with the OSI model. Its primary purpose is to provide connectivity between upper OSI layers of common protocols and the media used to connect network devices. Figure 8-3 illustrates the four FDDI specifications and their relationship to each other and to the IEEE-defined Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer.The LLC sublayer is a component of Layer 2, the MAC layer, of the OSI reference model . Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 8-3 Chapter 8 FDDI Station-Attachment faces Fiber Distributed Data Interface Figure 8-3 FDDI Specifications Map to the OSI Hierarchical Model Logical link control Media access control FDDI standards Physical layer protocol Station management Physical layer medium ct840803 FDDI Station-Attachment Types One of the unique characteristics of FDDI is that multiple ship canal actually exist by which to connect FDDI devices.FDDI defines four types of devices single-attachment station (SAS), dual-attachment station (DAS), single-attached concentrator (SAC), and dual-attached concentrator (DAC). An SAS attaches to only one ring (the primary) through a concentrator. One of the primary advantages of connecting devices with SAS attachments is that the devices will not have any effect on the FDDI ring if they are disconnected or powered off. Concentrators will be covered in more detail in the following discussion. Each FDDI DAS has two ports , designated A and B. These ports connect the DAS to the dual FDDI ring.Therefore, each port provides a connection for two the primary and the secondary rings. As you will see in the next section, devices using DAS connections will affect the rings if they are disconnected or powered off. Figure 8-4 shows FDDI DAS A and B ports with attachments to the primary and secondary rings. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-4 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Fault Tolerance Figure 8-4 FDDI DAS Ports Attach to the Primary and Secondary Rings Primary Primary Port A Port B Secondary Secondary FDDI DASAn FDDI concentrator (also called a dual-attachment concentrator DAC) is the building block of an FDDI network. It attaches directly to both the primary and secondary rings and ensures that the failure or power-down of any SAS does not bring down the ring. This is particularly utilizable when PCs, or similar devices that are frequently powered on and off, connect to the ring. Figure 8-5 shows the ring attachments of an FDDI SAS, DAS, and concentrator. Figure 8-5 A Concentrator Attaches to Both the Primary and Secondary Rings FDDI Concentrator DAS SAS SAS FDDI Fault ToleranceFDDI provides a number of fault-tolerant features. In particular, FDDIs dual-ring environment, the implementation of the optical bypass switch, and dual-homing support make FDDI a resilient media technology. ct840805 Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 ct840804 8-5 Chapter 8 FDDI Fault Tolerance Fiber Distributed Data Interface Dual Ring FDDIs primary fault-tolerant feature is the dual ring. If a station on the dual ring fails or is powered down, or if the cable is damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped (doubled back onto itself) into a single ring.When the ring is wrapped, the dual-ring regional anatomy becomes a single-ring topology. Data continues to be transmitted on the FDDI ring without performance impact during the wrap condition. Figure 8 -6 and Figure 8-7 illustrate the effect of a ring wrapping in FDDI. Figure 8-6 A Ring Recovers from a Station Failure by Wrapping Station 1 MAC B A Station 4 Ring wrap Ring wrap Station 2 A MAC B B MAC A A B Failed station Station 3 Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-6 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI Fault Tolerance Figure 8-7A Ring also Wraps to Withstand a Cable Failure Station 1 MAC B A Station 4 Ring wrap Station 2 A MAC B B MAC A Failed wiring Ring wrap A B Station 3 When a single station fails, as shown in Figure 8-6, devices on either side of the failed (or powered-down) station wrap, forming a single ring. Network operation continues for the remaining stations on the ring. When a cable failure occurs, as shown in Figure 8-7, devices on either side of the cable fault wrap. Network operation continues for all stations. It should be noted that FDDI truly provides fault tolerance against a single failure only.When two or more failures occur, th e FDDI ring segments into two or more supreme rings that are incapable of communicating with each other. Optical Bypass Switch An optical bypass switch provides continuous dual-ring operation if a device on the dual ring fails. This is used both to prevent ring segmentation and to eliminate failed stations from the ring. The optical bypass switch performs this function using optical mirrors that pass light from the ring directly to the DAS device during normal operation.If a failure of the DAS device occurs, such as a power-off, the optical bypass switch will pass the light through itself by using internal mirrors and thereby will maintain the rings integrity. The benefit of this capability is that the ring will not enter a wrapped condition in case of a device failure. Figure 8-8 shows the functionality of an optical bypass switch in an FDDI network. When using the OB, you will notice a tremendous digression of your network as the packets are sent through the OB unit. Internetwork ing Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 ct840807 MAC 8-7 Chapter 8 FDDI Fault ToleranceFiber Distributed Data Interface Figure 8-8 The Optical Bypass Switch Uses Internal Mirrors to Maintain a Network Station 1 Station 1 B A B A Failed station Optical bypass switch normal configuration Station 4 A B Optical bypass switch bypassed configuration Ring does not wrap Station 2 A B Station 2 A B Station 4 A B A B A B Station 3 Station 3 Dual Homing Critical devices, such as routers or mainframe hosts, can use a fault-tolerant technique called dual homing to provide additional redundancy and to help guarantee operation. In dual-homing situations, the critical device is attached to two concentrators.Figure 8-9 shows a dual-homed configuration for devices such as tear servers and routers. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-8 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface FDDI tack together Format Figure 8-9 A Dual-Homed Configuration Guarantees Operation Concentrator Concent rator File servers Routers One pair of concentrator links is declared the active link the other pair is declared passive. The passive link stays in backup mode until the primary link (or the concentrator to which it is attached) is headstrong to have failed. When this occurs, the passive link automatically activates.FDDI Frame Format The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring frame. This is one of the areas in which FDDI borrows heavily from earlier LAN technologies, such as Token Ring. FDDI frames can be as large as 4,500 bytes. Figure 8-10 shows the frame format of an FDDI data frame and token. Figure 8-10 The FDDI Frame Is Similar to That of a Token Ring Frame Data frame Preamble Start delimiter Frame control stopping point address Source address ct840809 Data FCS End delimiter Frame status Token Preamble Start delimiter Frame control End delimiter FDDI Frame fieldThe following descriptions summarize the FDDI data frame and token fields illustrated in Figur e 8-10. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 8-9 Chapter 8 Copper Distributed Data Interface Fiber Distributed Data Interface PreambleGives a unique chronological succession that prepares each station for an upcoming frame. Start delimiterIndicates the beginning of a frame by employing a foretoken pattern that differentiates it from the rest of the frame. Frame controlIndicates the size of the address fields and whether the frame contains asynchronous or synchronous data, among other control information.Destination addressContains a unicast (singular), multicast (group), or broadcast (every station) address. As with Ethernet and Token Ring addresses, FDDI destination addresses are 6 bytes long. Source addressIdentifies the single station that sent the frame. As with Ethernet and Token Ring addresses, FDDI source addresses are 6 bytes long. DataContains either information destined for an upper-layer protocol or control information. Frame check sequence (FCS)Is filed by the source station with a calculated cyclic redundancy check value dependent on frame contents (as with Token Ring and Ethernet).The destination address recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded. End delimiterContains unique symbols cannot be data symbols that indicate the end of the frame. Frame statusAllows the source station to determine whether an error occurred identifies whether the frame was recognized and copied by a receiving station. Copper Distributed Data Interface Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI) is the implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire.Like FDDI, CDDI provides data rates of 100 Mbps and uses dual-ring architecture to provide redundancy. CDDI supports distances of about 100 meters from desktop to concentrator. CDDI is defined by the ANSI X3T9. 5 Committee. The CDDI standard is officially named the Twisted-Pair Physical Medium-Dependent (TP-PMD) standard. It is also referred to as the Twisted-Pair Distributed Data Interface (TP-DDI), consistent with the term Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). CDDI is consistent with the physical and media-access control layers defined by the ANSI standard.The ANSI standard recognizes only two types of cables for CDDI shielded twisted pair (STP) and unshielded twisted pair (UTP). STP cabling has 150-ohm impedance and adheres to EIA/TIA 568 (IBM Type 1) specifications. UTP is data-grade cabling (Category 5) consisting of four unshielded pairs using tight-pair twists and specially developed insulating polymers in plastic jackets adhering to EIA/TIA 568B specifications. Figure 8-11 illustrates the CDDI TP-PMD specification in relation to the remaining FDDI specifications. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-10 1-58705-001-3Chapter 8 Fiber Distributed Data Interface Summary Figure 8-11 CDDI TP-PMD and FDDI Specifications Adhere to Different Standards FDDI Media Access Control (MAC) FDDI physical la yer (PHY) FDDI Station Management (SMT) Twisted-pair wire PMD Single-mode fiber PMD Multimode fiber PMD Specification for CDDI Summary The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-passing, dual-ring LAN architecture using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is frequently implemented as a high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper.Review Questions QWhat are the benefits of using FDDI instead of CDDI? ALonger distance, no RFI, no EFI. QWhat role does the DAC play in the FDDI network? AThe concentrator is a dual-attachment station device and ensures that when single-attachment station devicessuch as PCsare turned off, they do not crack up the network ring. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 ct840811 8-11 Chapter 8 Review Questions Fiber Distributed Data Interface Internetworking Technologies Handbook 8-12 1-58705-001-3

Patriotism, Philosophy and Victory in the War for Independence Essay

the Statess fight for independence would emerge quite natur onlyy out of the needs of its people to instal a abidance of governance, of economy and of society reflective of the demands created by the path of developwork forcet of the colonies. Its people would be assisted in their ascent to this revolt by no small degree of propaganda, which would help to represent the trespasses of kingship as a process of governance for the masses. Of the primary feather documents mentioned in Ameri give the bounce Firsthand, Thomas Paines 1776 parcel of land Common Sense, remains the most famous and representative of such literature.And indeed, the judgement here delivered helps to explain how the patriots prevailed in conflict with the mighty British military. In a text designed to produce a guts of revolutionary outrage, Paine crafts a philosophical treatise on appropriate governance designed to counter that which had very organically emerged in the colonies with the increasingly archaic nature of monarchy such as that imposed upon the colonists by the British.In his pamphlet, Paine openly calls for and advocates armed resistance as a inwardness to the defense of the economic and governmental systems developing separate from the British Crown. He characterizes the distinction between kingship and the evolving colonial democracy as being irreconcilable, contending that men of all ranks have embarked in the controversy, from different motives, and with various designs scarcely all have been ineffectual, and the period of debate is closed. Arms, as the last resource, decide the contest. (82)Couched in Paines sense of righteous indignation, the text largely drives toward this point by making the concerted argument that the colonists can tolerate the imposition of kingship so far as they can tolerate the sacrifice of the freedoms which had be strike inherently associated to persistence in the nascent America. This would be the undercurrent that would sweep the colonist s into vehement support for the cause of independence, drawing a core philosophical connection between the anticipated form of government and the emotional disposition of those which the means to achieve it.For the patriots, this mode of communication with the public would be essential to drawing steadfast support for an unlikely ambition. There would be so strong a wave of indignation that the type of language utilize by figures like Paine would have a real, tangible and irreversible impact on the attitudes of the colonists. The indignation resonates in Paines advocacy of progressive thoughts on the rights of man. In his text, he writes with great rhetorical flourish of the natural magnetic dip of individuals toward civil acquaintance.This endows his work with the sense of a divine endorsement of individual liberty and an explication of the quick of scent movement toward democratic governance. Of Thomas Paines recommendation that the colonists awaken to the injustice being deal t them at the hands of the monarchy, there is a principle encouragement toward the acquiescence to democracy which would be used to define a moral divergence between the aspirant colonial leaders and members of the oppressing British Crown.Drawing a sibylline discussion of a spontaneously occurring new civilization which clearly intimates the experience of the colonists, he remarks that there is an inherent drive amongst these pioneers to consent to leave the legislative dower to be managed by a select number chosen from the whole body, who atomic number 18 supposed to have the same concerns at stake which have who constitute them. (Paine, 67) This clear endorsement of the natural proclivity of the colonists toward democratic organization would honor clear favor with a people enjoying the manifold benefits of existing in a society separate from the dominance of the crown. Particularly, there would be a resonance with colonists in the idea that each of them might be accorded equal and inviolable rights. As Paine pits, this is an idea hinted at by the British Law of Commons, barely made immediately ridiculous by the inbuilt inequality of the monarchy as a form of government.The rationality at center would be reflected in the quickness with which the colonists would begin to take up arms against a much greater force. Yet chill out other documents noted by America Firsthand denote that Paine had seized on already prevalent sensations amongst statesmen and community leaders considering the failed rationality of British oversight. Quite certainly, Americas burgeoning into a representative democracy and a constitutional state of governance would be produced by years of political discord and intensive philosophical discourse.The literature of the period leading up to and inspiring the revolution would play a key take time off in proliferating the ideas of democracy, of the natural rights of man and of the various themes of loving justice which would cont ribute to the theoretical founding of the Union. A sermon by Massachusetts statesman and preacher Nathaniel Niles, delivered in 1774, would prefigure some of the more recognized and influential works of revolutionary America, including Thomas Jeffersons Declaration of Independence (1776) and An Act for Establishing Religious Freedom (1777) and Paines Common Sense.Indisputably, Niles would be inclined to note in these worksand further approve of the adaptation of his own ideasof the natural tendency of individuals toward civil liberty, the sense of a divine endorsement of individual liberty and an explication of the logical movement toward democratic governance. On the primary topic, Niles would provide an explicit definition. Civil liberty consists, according to Niles, not in each inclinations of the members of a community, but in the being and due administration of such a system of laws, as effectually tends to the greatest felicity of a state. (Niles, 260) In the absence of any such constitutional administration for the colonies, British rule would be regarded in this text as a pointedly counter-intuitive form of governance to the growing proclivity for civil liberties. Such is a perspective at the very heart of Jeffersons Declaration of Independence.A document to the Enlightenment philosophy according men equal rights and proceeding from a conception of a natural liberty foundational to the subsequent authorship of the U. S.Constitution, it would bespeak the inevitability of Niles conception, that the attainment of civil liberty was primary among men, and that to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. (Jefferson, 8) Here, we begin to recognize a persistent pattern amongst the patriots who would lead American to self-determination. Essentially, figures of deep ideological conviction, they would pull through in stimulating revolutionary fervor by reinforcing the primacy of th eir beliefs. Herein, they would uncover a social pattern underscoring this belief.Such would coalesce into an outright fervor for victory from what had come to be seen as occupation. In addition to the social inclination toward civil liberties, Niles also speaks to the theology of such a consideration, arguing with a recurrent repeat that God himself considers personal and civil liberty to be gifts of the highest order. Remarking on multiple occasions of the Jews struggle to gain freedom from their Egyptian oppressors, the author expresses a sentiment which compares the injustice of this slavery to the injustice of British tyranny in the colonies.To make the case that God would specifically endorse the colonialist cause, he asserts that of the Jews that God promised them freedom from the subjugation of their enemies as a testimony of his favour in case of their obedience and as chastisement for their disobedience, he threatened them with servitude. (Niles, 266) Niles purpose here is to remark upon the divinity in the quest for political liberty, using his pulpit as a forum through which to espouse a spiritualized sense of resistance to the monarchy.This parallels the proposition found in Jeffersons Act, which impels the reader to observe the improprieties of a theoreticalthough clearly Britain-inspiredforce which hath established and maintained false religions over the greatest part of the world, and through all time. (Jefferson, 14) Here, Jefferson equates the British imposition of authority throughout the colonized world with a misrepresentation of Gods will. His content speaks of an oppressive apparitional system but bears the mark of allegation against the British abuse of Christianity.By seizing on a subject of deep emotional importance to those subjected, there becomes a core association between patriotism and godliness, further endowing colonists with an unshakeable conviction. Just as Jeffersons discussion would be a practical application of Niles religious perspective, so too would Thomas Paines work speak to the political ideas in Niles work. This clear endorsement of the natural proclivity of the colonists toward democratic organization would find clear favor with Nathaniel Niles, himself an active supporter of this strategy.In fact, perhaps most important of the foundations to the Niles discussion is his testament to the superiority of democratic governance as a means to best representing the good of a civilization, arguing that when a majority unite in any measures, it is to be supposed, they are such measures as are best calculated to secure the particular interests of the members of that majority and , consequently, the general interests of the body are more effectually provided for. (Niles, 266) This, the author argues, is an indication that the desire to improve a governance of a society must be founded on aspirations to move policy and rule more closely into proximity of majority interests. In Niles 1774 text, the ratty beckoning for a populist ascendancy to independence can be detected.The combined texts of Niles, Paine and Jefferson form a nuanced case against the policies and practices of the British. And certainly, the point at which they seem most to form a concurrent school of philosophy is in their shared sense of this independence movement as not simply concerning the liberty of the American colonists but as serving the more universal natural rights of man.Each of these texts refers as its ideological underpinning to an intercession between administrative practicality, social morality and divine capital of Rhode Island in arguing that the desire of the colonists for independence could be viewed as a larger resistance to the European practices of monarchical colonialism which had shaped the globe for centuries prior. This natural tendency toward self-determination stands as a testament to the will of the fledgling republics leaders and remarks tellingly of their ascendance to victory o ver the British.